The authors observed the effects of deer and snail herbivory on a perennial lupine through exclosures. Herbivory by deer significantly decreased plant biomass and growth rate of seedlings and juvenile plants. However, the effect of deer herbivory was less on older plants and did not affect plant survival. Deer herbivory increased the number of inflorescences, but these plants produced significantly smaller seeds. Lupine plants exposed to herbivory were less likely to be attacked by a galling insect (Dasineura lupinorum), but those that were attacked had higher densities of galls than plants protected from herbivory.
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