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Red wolves (Canis rufus) were listed as endangered in 1967.  Recovery efforts attempted to locate the rare (perhaps nonexistent) wild red wolves in the southeastern United States.  Instead, coyotes (which share a home range with the red wolf) with the strongest red wolf characteristics were bred in a captive breeding program and released on the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in North Carolina.  This Wildlife Refuge is located on an island, which helps to avoid hybridization with coyotes.  As of 2014, there are about 100 red wolves in the wild. "Red Wolf Howl" by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters is licensed to CC BY 2.0

• Red Wolf Recovery Program

In the Northern Rocky Mountains, wolves (Canis lupus) had been eliminated, but there were healthy populations across the border to Canada.  The recovery strategy for the region was to relocate wild wolves from Canada into suitable habitats in central Idaho (35 animals) and Yellowstone National Park (31 animals).  The original goal of the recovery program was three populations of 150 wolves.  The Northern gray wolf was removed from the endangered species list in 2012, at which time there were thought to be 1,774 wild wolves living in three genetically connected populations.  "The Grizzly & Wolf Discovery Center" by whalt  is licensed by CC BY 2.0.
 

• Gray Wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains

Genetic testing indicates the eastern wolf is a member of the red wolf-coyote lineage rather than a subspecies of the gray wolf.  This classification has brought about a proposal to separate the eastern wolf (Canis lycaon) from the gray wolf.  This wolf has extensively hybridized with wolves in the western Great Lakes region and also hybridized with coyotes in the eastern Great Lakes region.

 

Amber Dalke is a Senior Research Specialist in the School of Natural Resources and the Environment at the University of Arizona.  Ms. Dalke is an active member of the Rangelands Partnership and works on the website redesign in addition to maintaining content for the Mexican Gray Wolf Hot Topic.  Outside of the Rangelands Partnership, Ms. Dalke is interested in rangeland ecology and management.  Her primary research topic is evaluating the effects of fire on subalpine montane grasslands in the White Mountains, as well as Madrean evergreen woodlands and semidesert grasslands in the Coronado National Forest in southern Arizona.

Edited by George B. Ruyle (Professor, University of Arizona) and Brian R. Anderson (University of Arizona). Additional input provided by Michael Borman (Associate Department Head, Oregon State University), Amy Ganguli (Assistant Professor, New Mexico State University), Cody Sheehy (University of Arizona), Andrew Caven (M.S., Washington State University), and Ashley Hall (Research Specialist, University of Arizona Cooperative Extension).

There are many questions surrounding the Mexican Wolf Recovery Program.  This section aims to answer commonly asked questions.

Mexican Gray Wolf and Human Interaction

Q: Has a Mexican gray wolf attacked a human?
A: No, there have been no incidents of a free-ranging Mexican gray wolf attacking or injuring a person.  In fact, no wolf has attacked a human in the lower 48 states.  There have been wolf attacks and deaths in Alaska and Canada.  Wolves are wild animals and it is best to avoid when possible.  More information on wolf/human interactions and attacks on people.

Q: Are Mexican gray wolves more dangerous to people since they are handled more regularly by humans than other wolf populations?
A: Biologists look for avoidance and fear of humans as one of the primary characteristics when selecting Mexican gray wolves for release.  Before release, wolves are managed with minimal exposure to humans and conditioned to become more fearful of humans.  

Q: If a Mexican gray wolf is threatening a person or family pet, can the wolf be killed?
A: If a person is attacked by any endangered species, including a Mexican gray wolf, the animal can be taken (killed).  If a family pet is attacked by a Mexican gray wolf, or any endangered species, the wolf cannot be taken.  More information on legal and illegal activity.

Q: If a Mexican gray wolf dies on a person’s property, is that person liable for the death of the animals?
A: A wildlife autopsy is performed on all deceased Mexican gray wolves.  If the death is ruled suspicious, then the incident will be investigated to determine how the wolf died.

Mexican Gray Wolf Maximum Numbers

Q:  Is there a maximum number of wolves that will be allowed in the wild?
A: There is currently no cap on the total number of Mexican gray wolves in the wild. Like most predator-prey relationships, the number of wolves is influenced by elk populations.  Initial research has found that 3 wolves per 1000 elk is sustainable for elk.  Given Arizona’s elk population, the number of wolves that could be maintained is about 150.  With the current Mexican wolf populations (at least 83 wolves), elk populations have not been impacted. More information on the Mexican gray wolf and the elk population.

Mexican Gray Wolf Health

Q: Do the Mexican gray wolves have infectious diseases that could transfer to humans, pets, or livestock?
A: Mexican gray wolves released into the wild are vaccinated against diseases and, once in the wild, the animals are intensively monitored for diseases and parasites.  Like other wildlife, Mexican wolves are susceptible to many of the same diseases that can affect domestic dogs, coyotes, or other members of the dog family. More information on the Mexican gray wolf and infectious disease.

Q: What can be done about the genetic diversity problem?
A: Expanding the release area to parts of the Tonto and Gila National Forests would allow more genetically diverse animals from the captive breeding population into the wild population.  Another strategy for increasing diversity is cross-fostering, which moves very young pups from one litter to a different, similar-age litter with the hope that the receiving pack will raise the young as their own.  More information on cross-fostering.

Mexican gray wolf recovery is an issue that crosses international borders.  Historically, about 90 percent of the Mexican gray wolves home range was in Mexico.  The Mexican gray wolf population was centered in the Sierra Madre Mountains in Mexico.  The home range went as far south as Oaxaca (located in southwestern Mexico) and as far north as southeastern Arizona. 

Similar to the United States, Mexican gray wolves were eradicated due to conflicts with livestock populations and only a few animals remained by the 1960s.  A decade later, Mexican gray wolves were only found in a few locations in the states of Durango and Zacatacas and none remained in the United States.  To prevent extinction, Mexico and the United States began a captive breeding program

Agencies in Mexico have been created with the aim to reestablish wild Mexican wolves from the captive breeding population, educate the public, and conduct research.  One program aimed at wolf reintroduction is the Technical Advisory Subcommittee for the Recovery of the Mexican Wolf.  This group created the Action Plan for the Conservation of the Mexican Wolf in 1999 (similar to the Mexican Wolf Recovery Plan in the United States) and established 17 facilities to breed Mexican wolves.  These facilities have produced more than 70 Mexican gray wolves.

Mexico is in the initial stages of returning wolves into the wild using the animals from the captive breeding program.  Sites in northern Mexico were selected as release locations based on research on habitat, prey availability, and public perceptions about the Mexican gray wolf.  In all, ten Mexican gray wolves have been released.  Telemetry collars, loaned from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, allowed for monitoring of the wolves.  Of the released wolves, 4 or 5 animals are still living.  Five wolves were killed immediately following release by warfarin, a blood thinner that is commonly used as a poison.  Despite this setback, the Mexican conservation officials are monitoring and planning future steps to ensure the survival of the Mexican gray wolf in this historic home range.

There are challenges facing the program.  There is little to no public land and many private land owners are hesitant or reluctant to allow releases and wolf populations on their land.  Many ranchers are also uninterested in the return of a predator that could affect their livestock populations.  Despite this, estimates show that up to 2,600 Mexican gray wolves may be sustained within the habitat available in Mexico, if human persecution is significantly reduced. 

References

• Questions Regarding Consequences of Release of Mexican Wolves in Mexico - February 2010.
• Mexican Authorities to Release Mexican Wolves in Sonora - Mexican authorities plan to release five Mexican wolves in September 2011 at an undisclosed ranch located in northeastern Sonora, Mexico.
• Warfarin Caused Deaths - February 2012. 

In Arizona and New Mexico, the Mexican Wolf Recovery Program affects many people for a variety of reasons.   Understanding the various viewpoints allows for all sides to understand the complex relationship between wolves, wildlife, and humans.   [From A Patchwork of Perspectives by Julie Hammonds (Arizona Wildlife Views, Special Issue 2014). The views and opinions expressed are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of Rangelands West.]

Wolf advocate Bobbie Holaday (founder of Protect Arizona’s Wolves) was a key force behind wolf reintroduction.  “We very much need a top predator in the wild.  Unfortunately, when the wolf was destroyed, the coyote moved into that niche.  But coyotes couldn’t do the job the wolf had done.  Wolves keep a healthy population of deer.  With the wolf back, deer and elk have to be on the alert and move around.  They have more exercise and are healthier.  Putting the wolf back into its niche was a way of maintaining a healthy balance among the whole ecological system and every species in it.  This not only benefits advocates who wanted to have wolves in the wild, but hunters and those who enjoy taking advantage of all the opportunities in nature.  We have wolves that were born in the wild now, which we didn’t before, and that’s what I wanted: wild wolves.”

Sportsmen, including Steve Clark (president of the Arizona Elk Society), foresee impacts to wild ungulates, particularly elk, and to hunting opportunities.  “Being an elk lover, elk hunter and a conservationist that specializes in elk, the loss of elk is the number one issue to me personally…  The Mexican gray wolf’s diet is 80 percent to 90 percent elk.  This could easily affect the wildlife of Arizona unless we keep the wolf population in check… Currently we’re losing hunting opportunity.  Hunters spend money not only on licenses and tags but on food and gas and hotel space and laundry.  It all adds up in those small communities.”

The re-establishment of a top predator in a landscape that’s no longer wild concerns livestock growers.  “Ranchers didn’t want the wolves in the first place and for them to bear most of the financial burden of wolf presence – that’s not fair.” Barbara Marks, a Rancher in the Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area.  (Wolves have attacked livestock and cattle dogs.  Livestock are moved to minimize conflicts with wolves, which requires additional expenses such as supplemental hay and range riders to stay with herds during critical times, such as calving). “[Arizona Cattle Grower’s Association] roughly estimates it costs $20 a head more to raise cattle [annually] in the Blue Range than in other parts of Arizona.” Patrick Bray, Arizona Cattle Growers’ Association. 

Two Apache tribe reservations are near the wolf recovery area in Arizona.  Dave Parsons (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) recounts how each tribe responded to the Mexican gray wolf reintroduction.  “From the beginning, the San Carlos Apaches unwaveringly opposed wolves moving out of the recovery area onto their reservations… A couple traditional San Carlos Apaches were interested in doing a blessing of sorts for the wolves when they were first released from crates into acclimation pens in 1998...  As far as I know, they still feel the same way: They have no intention of hosting wolves on their reservation.  [White Mountain Apaches also showed interest as the program began] but it never turned into a request or an agreement at the time, to allow the wolf population to expand onto their reservation… [later] there was an agreement foraged with the tribe and they do allow wolves to come onto their reservation, at least in some numbers.  That continues to this day.  We have one tribe participating, and one tribe not.”

Since the creation of the Mexican Wolf Recovery Program, many articles have been published in newspapers and on websites and blogs.  Opinions are varied but can generally be divided into two groups.  The first is livestock operators, big game hunters and guides, and rural country boards of supervisors.  Wolves sometimes prey on livestock, which harms livestock and hurts ranchers financially.  For hunters and guides, there are concerns whether elk populations will decline with an increase in the wolf population.  The second group is wildlife conservationists and wolf advocates.  Wolves are thought to help stabilize wildlife populations by preying on old and sick elk, deer, and other wildlife and provide food for scavengers, including bears and some birds.  This group supports having wolves in the wild.  

References

• Wolves at the Door - An audio overview of the controversy in the Northern Rocky Mountains.
• The Construction of Human's Identity in Nature by Opposing Social Movements in the Idaho Wolf Wars

Wolves Returning to Oregon
Gray wolves returned to Oregon in 2005 after a 60 year absence.  Wolf reintroduction and coexistence strategies are discussed with ranchers, the Oregon Cattleman Association, and the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife to try and understand this issue without the polarization.

Mexican gray wolf management is one of the most labor and time intensive programs of any wildlife management program in the United States due to the complexity of the issues, number of stakeholders, and controversy surrounding wolves.  Intensive management means the Mexican gray wolf recovery program is expensive.  For cost purposes, the Mexican gray wolf project can be divided into five components: 1) captive breeding of wolves, 2) planning for the release of the wolf (mandated by law for endangered species), 3) screening and preparing captive bred wolves for release, 4) releasing wolves into the wild, and 5) intensive monitoring and management of wolves in the wild.  Since there are many organizations involved, exact dollar amounts are difficult to calculate.  The captive breeding program is conducted by a largely voluntary network of zoos and zoological facilities at 52 locations in the United States and Mexico, and the money spent is largely unreported.  The other components are more challenging to separate.  From 1977 to 2012, federal and state government cumulative costs on the Mexican wolf recovery program were estimated to be a minimum of $28.8 million.  This estimate does not include private or volunteer costs.

The cost of securing existing Mexican wolf genetic lineages and restoring wolves in the southwest has been substantial.  However, the total cost is challenging (probably impossible) to calculate.  The benefits of the wolf program are also difficult to calculate.

References

• Estimated Funds Expended by Lead Agencies for Mexican Wolf Recovery and Reintroduction - Compiled by the Mexican Wolf Blue Range Recovery Area Reintroduction Project Middle Management Team, as of December 31, 2012.

In 2013, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to remove the gray wolf from the list of endangered species since recovery efforts across the United States have brought back healthy populations of the gray wolf.  However, the proposal maintains the protections for the Mexican gray wolf by listing the subspecies as an endangered species. 

Also in 2013, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to expand the current range where Mexican gray wolves can become established and expand the area where wolves from captivity can be released.  Currently, wolves are moved back to the Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area if they leave the Recovery Area. The proposed plan would expand the area where Mexican gray wolves are permitted to be and reduce translocations.  Another proposed change would increase the size of the release zone.  Currently, the release zone is only about 16% of the Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area.  Increasing the release zone would avoid excessive overlapping of pack territories and reduce interspecies strife. 

Following the proposals, two public hearings were held in late 2013 in addition to a comment period to allow the public to respond to the proposed changes.

References

• Proposed Rule: 2013 Proposed Revision to the Nonessential Experimental Population of the Mexican Wolf
• Proposed Rule: 2013 Removing the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Maintaining Protections for the Mexican Wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) by Listing it as Endangered
• Public Hearing Transcript: Public Hearing Concerning Mexican Wolves, December 3, 2013 in Pinetop, Arizona
• Public Hearing Transcript: Public Hearing Concerning Mexican Wolves, November 20, 2013 in Albuquerque, New Mexico
• Peer Review Comments